精油的藥理作用 IFPA期刊 2023 秋/冬季 22期
Lorena R. Lizarraga-Valderrama 探討了使用精油緩解焦慮和抑鬱的科學證據,並解釋了其藥理作用機制。
超過2000年前,埃及、印度、波斯、美索不達米亞和中國的文明使用精油的藥理和心理特性進行治療和宗教用途。精油的生物活性包括抗菌、抗真菌、抗病毒、抗炎、抗氧化、抗癌和抗痛覺特性(Hüsnü Can Baser & Buchbauer,2016)。
研究表明,許多精油在神經系統中引發可測量的藥理反應,包括抗焦慮/抗抑鬱、鎮痛、抗驚厥、精神刺激和鎮靜樣作用,並能增強認知處理、注意力和記憶力。因此,它們可以用於治療與精神疾病相關的症狀,包括抑鬱和焦慮,在Covid-19大流行期間及之後,這些疾病的發病率在全球範圍內顯著增加。
抑鬱和焦慮障礙的原因包括遺傳、表觀遺傳和心理因素、環境條件、營養和過度壓力(Alshaya,2022;Regue-Guyon,Lanfumey & Mongeau,2018),其複雜的病理生理學涉及應激反應調節系統的失調。大多數抑鬱和焦慮障礙通過藥物治療、心理治療或兩者結合來治療。
目前推薦的抑鬱和焦慮藥物是選擇性血清素再攝取抑制劑(SSRIs)和選擇性血清素去甲腎上腺素再攝取抑制劑(SNRIs)。雖然顯示出有利的益處-風險比,但它們與多種副作用相關,包括體重增加、嗜睡、疲勞、性功能障礙、失去性慾、頭暈、鎮靜、認知下降和心動過速。因此,人們對替代藥物的興趣日益增加,這些藥物可以以最小或沒有副作用的情況下治療抑鬱和焦慮。
對精油藥理學的研究表明,它們對涉及應激反應的分子途徑的影響(見表1)。大量研究表明,精油在人體中產生許多生理作用,可以通過參數量化,包括血壓(BP)、心率(HR)、呼吸率(RR)、皮質類固醇血清水平以及α波和β波。
表 1. 精油對心理健康的影響及藥理機制
精油植物名稱 | 對心理健康的影響 | 藥理機制 |
Lavandula angustifolia (薰衣草) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | GABA能系統 |
Cymbopogon citratus (檸檬草) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | GABA能系統 |
Anthemis nobilis (羅馬洋甘菊) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | 抑制促炎反應 |
Cinnamomum verum (肉桂) | 精神刺激 | 多巴胺能系統 |
Salvia sclarea (鼠尾草) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸 |
Rosmarinus officinalis (迷迭香) | 精神刺激和促認知 | HPA軸;多巴胺能系統 |
Rosa damascena (玫瑰) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸;多巴胺能系統 |
Pelargonium graveolens (天竺葵) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸 |
Citrus sinensis (甜橙) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸 |
Citrus bergamia (佛手柑) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸 |
Citrus aurantium (橙花) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸 |
Cananga odorata (依蘭) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸;GABA能系統 |
Boswellia sp. (乳香) | 抗抑鬱/抗焦慮 | HPA軸;5-羥色胺能系統 |
障礙的生物學基礎
為了理解精油對中樞神經系統的藥理作用及其治療焦慮和抑鬱的潛力,我們首先需要了解這些障礙的病理生理學。
焦慮的病理生理學涉及應激反應調節系統的失調。這些系統包括下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺(HPA)軸(控制應激反應和調節許多身體過程的主要神經內分泌系統)、交感神經系統(SNS)和傳出迷走神經。在HPA軸的持續激活下,糖皮質激素會降低大腦中的血清素(5HT)和多巴胺(DA)水平,導致情緒和焦慮障礙。外部應激源刺激位於海馬中的室旁核(PVN)中促腎上腺皮質激素釋放激素(CRH)的釋放。
反過來,CRH觸發垂體釋放促腎上腺皮質激素(ACTH),隨後刺激腎上腺產生並釋放糖皮質激素(Chung,Son & Kim,2017;Raison,Capuron & Miller,2006)。糖皮質激素(與腎上腺釋放的乙酰膽鹼(ACh)和傳出迷走神經釋放的ACh一起)通過結合於細胞因子產生細胞的受體發揮抗炎作用(Slavich & Irwin,2014)。在HPA軸長期激活下,皮質醇可以通過增強血清素運輸蛋白(SERT)的合成來增加血清素的再攝取,導致突觸間隙中的血清素水平下降(Tafet等,2001)。
皮質醇和去甲腎上腺素(NA)水平的升高增強了交感驅動力和細胞因子的釋放。這些細胞因子已被證明對HPA軸具有雙向作用,並且還發揮神經毒性作用(Dean & Keshavan,2017)。此外,SNS的持續激活刺激了腎上腺素和去甲腎上腺素的釋放從腎上腺和交感神經分別增加HR和BP(Slavich & Irwin,2014)。因此,腎上腺素和去甲腎上腺素通過激活核因子κ-輕鏈增強子(NF-κB)途徑誘導促炎細胞因子的產生和釋放。一旦這些細胞因子到達大腦,它們就能改變血清素、多巴胺和GABA的代謝,導致情緒和焦慮障礙(Raison, Capuron & Miller,2006)。
雖然抑鬱症的病理生理學尚不清楚,但我們知道它涉及多種生物機制的複雜相互作用。這些途徑涉及改變的神經遞質系統,例如5-羥色胺能、去甲腎上腺素能、多巴胺能和谷氨酸能系統;與壓力事件相關的HPA軸過度活動;減少的神經生成和神經可塑性;網絡功能障礙和增加的炎症(Dean & Keshavan,2017)。精油已被證明能與抗炎和促炎反應互動。
精油的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮作用
通過HPA軸
許多研究表明,乳香、依蘭、橙花、佛手柑、甜橙、天竺葵、玫瑰、鼠尾草和迷迭香精油可能通過降低糖皮質激素水平與HPA軸互動,從而產生抗抑鬱/抗焦慮作用。
在一項體內研究中,乳香精油顯著降低了睡眠不足大鼠的壓力標誌物水平。將稀釋的乳香精油(1:10)局部應用於荷荷巴油中,降低了皮質酮和葡萄糖水平。同樣,依蘭精油已被證明能降低血漿皮質酮水平。Zhang等人(2018)證明,暴露於依蘭精油氣味逆轉了焦慮小鼠的焦慮行為;這種精油通過減少大腦中的壓力誘導信號發揮了抗焦慮作用。
各種人體研究表明,吸入和透皮應用依蘭精油可降低BP和HR(Hongratanaworakit & Buchbauer,2004,2006;Jung等人,2013;Pujari等人,2012)。人類吸入依蘭精油也被證明能增加與深度放鬆相關的α腦波,並降低唾液α-澱粉酶,這是一種壓力反應指標(Pujari等人,2012;Ali & Naraz,2020)。
橙花精油在體內和臨床研究中表現出抗抑鬱樣作用。在一項強迫游泳測試(一種用於研究抗抑鬱藥物的行為模型)(Chen等人,2008)中,沙鼠吸入橙花精油顯著增加了游泳時間。(游泳時間的增加與大鼠中的抗抑鬱活性相關)。在一項臨床研究中,吸入橙花精油顯著降低了絕經後婦女的收縮壓和舒張壓,這表明HPA軸在抗焦慮作用中的潛在參與(Choi等人,2014)。
佛手柑精油的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮樣作用已被廣泛研究,多項大鼠行為測試和臨床研究證實了其對情緒障礙的有益影響(Robinson等人,2009,2017;Lizarraga-Valderrama,2021)。在一項研究中,發現佛手柑精油影響大鼠行為,同時減輕了對急性壓力的皮質酮反應。在測量焦慮的測試中,吸入精油顯著增加了探頭動作,這與小動物的抗焦慮活性相關(Bilkei-Gorzo & Gyertyan,1996)。在一項涉及41名健康女性的進一步研究中,在水中稀釋的佛手柑精油吸入15分鐘後,唾液皮質醇水平顯著下降(Watanabe等人,2015)。
甜橙精油在動物和人體研究中表現出抗焦慮活性(Lizarraga-Valderrama,2021)。在一項臨床試驗中,甜橙精油顯著降低了接受牙科治療的兒童的唾液皮質醇和HR(Jafarzadeh, Arman & Pour,2013)。皮質醇的減少表明HPA軸的參與,但需要進一步研究其對神經遞質系統的潛在影響。
臨床試驗還揭示了天竺葵和玫瑰精油的抗焦慮效果。例如,在分娩的第一階段吸入天竺葵精油顯著降低了初產婦的舒張壓(Rashidi Fakari等人,2015)。同樣,在一項對40名健康志願者的研究中,經皮吸收玫瑰精油顯著降低了收縮壓(Hongratanaworakit,2009)。天竺葵和玫瑰精油誘導的BP減少表明其作用機制中HPA軸的參與。
在一項對20名健康患者的臨床研究中,吸入迷迭香精油顯著增加了BP、HR和RR。EEG分析顯示α1和α2波的β波功率減少,而β波功率增加(Sayorwan等人,2013)。α波活動減少與增強的視覺注意力相關(Magooso等人,2019),而β波與意識思維和邏輯思維相關(Abhang, Gawali & Mehrotra,2016)。
在一項涉及54名尿失禁女性患者的試驗中,使用鼠尾草精油在尿動力學檢查期間顯著降低了RR,並產生了收縮壓和舒張壓(Seol等人,2013)。吸入迷迭香和鼠尾草精油誘導的BP、HR和RR顯著變化表明其作用機制中HPA軸的參與。
通過抑制促炎反應
許多研究建立了抑鬱症和炎症之間的雙向關係,其中炎症引起抑鬱和心理壓力,這些壓力是促炎的。事實上,抑鬱和心理壓力已被證明會增加促炎細胞因子的水平(Felger & Lotrich,2013;Steptoe, Hamer & Chida,2007)。在抑鬱症患者中,其他炎症標誌物如C反應蛋白和前列腺素E2(ibid)也被發現增加。
許多精油表現出抗炎特性(Hotta等人,2010;Katsukawa等人,2010)。有趣的是,真肉桂精油含有反式肉桂醛,一種已證明具有抗炎特性的化合物。
在一項大鼠研究中,真肉桂精油以劑量依賴的方式減少了不動時間。(不動時間的減少與抗抑鬱活性相關)。使用GC-MS分析,在所研究的真肉桂精油中鑑定出46種化學化合物,其主要成分肉桂醛(87.32%的成分)被確定為反式肉桂醛(Sohrabi, Pazgoohan, Seresht & Amin,2017)。在另一項體內研究中,反式肉桂醛被證明能抑制神經炎症(Chen等人,2016)。
雖然沒有直接證據表明真肉桂精油的抗抑鬱樣作用涉及的分子機制,但反式肉桂醛可能起主要作用。
通過5-羥色胺能系統
5-羥色胺能系統是一組分佈於腦幹的神經元和神經核。5-羥色胺調節一系列行為和神經心理過程,包括情緒、獎勵、憤怒、攻擊、知覺、注意、記憶、食欲和性(Berger, Gray & Roth,2009)。因此,5-羥色胺能功能障礙在情緒和焦慮障礙的基本機制中起作用。
幾十年來,單胺假說一直是情緒障礙發展的公認解釋。該假說推測,抑鬱的核心病理生理機制涉及中樞神經系統內5-羥色胺、去甲腎上腺素和/或多巴胺水平的降低(Delgado,2000)。用抗抑鬱藥物治療的患者中觀察到的抑鬱症狀減少,這些藥物調節單胺神經遞質水平(例如5-羥色胺和去甲腎上腺素)支持該假說。抗抑鬱藥物主要針對5-羥色胺以提高5-羥色胺濃度,從而在突觸水平增強5-羥色胺能傳遞。然而,抗抑鬱藥物作用的確切機制仍然難以捉摸。
然而,越來越多的證據表明,這些障礙源於各種生物機制的複雜相互作用,而不是來自單一機制(Dean & Keshavan,2017)。因此,5-羥色胺能系統的功能障礙可能構成抑鬱症中各種病理生理機制中的一個受干擾的生物過程。
有趣的是,吸入依蘭精油已被證明能增加小鼠腦中的5-羥色胺水平。在小鼠海馬中觀察到5-羥色胺濃度的增加,與精油管理後紋狀體中的多巴胺濃度下降同時發生(Zhang, Zhang, Feng & Yao,2016)。在一項測試中,依蘭精油的三種主要成分——苯甲酸苄酯、芳樟醇和苯甲醇——被證明在單獨測試時產生抗抑鬱/抗焦慮效果。然而,在另一項測試中,只有苯甲酸苄酯表現出這些效果(ibid)。
通過多巴胺能系統
實驗證據表明,迷迭香、鼠尾草和羅馬洋甘菊等精油能刺激多巴胺能系統,導致抗抑鬱/抗焦慮、精神刺激和促認知效果。多巴胺能系統調節多種功能,包括認知過程、動機、情緒調節、情感反應、正強化、內臟功能、運動、疼痛調節和激素分泌(Babić Leko, Hof & Šimić,2021)。
顯著數據表明,在抑鬱症中多巴胺系統會下調(Belujon & Grace,2017),且多巴胺系統在調節壓力和抑鬱相關的回路中起作用(Delva & Stanwood,2021)。多巴胺中腦邊緣系統和中腦皮質途徑受行為壓力因素的激活,並在抑鬱症中發現這些途徑有所改變(ibid; Travis,2003)。這些回路負責認知功能、獎勵和動機(Gangadhar & Rao,2015)。
值得注意的是,已發現多種精油在動物模型中增加多巴胺水平,發揮抗抑鬱/抗焦慮作用。在一項大鼠研究中,吸入迷迭香精油顯著減少了不動時間和血清皮質酮水平,同時顯著增加了大腦多巴胺水平(Villareal等人,2017)。因此,HPA軸和多巴胺能系統可能參與了迷迭香精油的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮特性。此外,該油在健康成年人中還顯示出促認知特性。在一項涉及144名參與者的研究中,迷迭香精油顯著增強了整體記憶質量和次要記憶因素(Moss, Cook, Wesnes & Duckett,2003)。
鼠尾草精油也被證明能通過調節多巴胺能系統產生抗抑鬱/抗焦慮作用。在一項大鼠研究中,腹腔內施用多巴胺受體拮抗劑SCH-23390和氟哌啶醇,發現顯著阻止了鼠尾草精油的抗抑鬱作用。這導致與對照組相比,不動時間顯著增加。因此,多巴胺能系統可能在鼠尾草精油的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮作用中發揮作用(Seol等人,2010)。
羅馬洋甘菊精油在動物模型中表現出精神刺激作用,同時調節多巴胺能系統。在一項大鼠研究中,發現該精油促進小鼠的移動,表明具有精神刺激作用。GC/MS分析揭示了活性成分異丁基安基酸酯、異戊基安基酸酯和2-甲基丁基異丁酸酯是促進小鼠移動的活性成分。運動效果被多巴胺拮抗劑氯丙嗪和氟哌啶醇顯著減弱,表明多巴胺能系統參與了精神刺激效果(Umezu等人,2017)。
通過GABA能系統
γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)是中樞神經系統中的主要抑制性神經遞質,通過抑制神經傳遞來減少神經元的興奮性,產生鎮靜作用(Allen, Sabir & Sharma,2023)。GABA能傳遞在調節情緒、控制海馬神經生成和神經成熟中起重要作用。最近的研究正在揭示GABA在認知功能中的作用(Yamatsu等人,2020)。由於GABA缺乏被廣泛認為是焦慮障礙和抑鬱症的顯著特徵,影響GABA受體的藥物被認為是潛在的創新抗抑鬱藥(Mohler,2012)。
值得注意的是,在一項動物研究中,佛手柑精油顯示出提高海馬GABA水平的能力。通過微透析探針將佛手柑精油施用於大鼠,顯著增加了海馬中的氨基神經遞質(包括甘氨酸、穀氨酸和GABA)的細胞外水平(Morrone等人,2007)。檸檬草也表現出與GABA能系統相關的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮特性。在一項動物實驗中,口服檸檬草精油顯著增加了動物在光暗測試中在光區花費的時間。隨後,在精油施用前,雙側注射選擇性GABA受體拮抗劑氟馬西尼。氟馬西尼有效對抗了檸檬草精油在光測試中誘導的鎮靜效果,這暗示了GABA能系統在精油作用機制中的參與(Costa等人,2011)。
在歐洲和美國,Lavandula angustifolia(薰衣草)精油是管理輕度壓力和焦慮的流行替代療法,早期研究表明GABA能系統參與了精油的抗抑鬱/抗焦慮特性。在一項揭示性研究中,發現薰衣草精油在GABA濃度較低時增強了GABA受體反應。薰衣草油的主要成分,特別是乙酸芳樟酯和芳樟醇,增加了GABA對這些受體的親和力(Aoshima & Hamamoto,1999)。此外,廣泛認為苯二氮䓬類、巴比妥類和麻醉劑的抗焦慮、抗驚厥和鎮靜作用源於GABA受體的增強(Aoshima & Hamamoto,1999)。因此,薰衣草精油和這些藥物可能在發揮其抗焦慮作用方面具有共同的作用機制。
結論
精油激活不同神經通路和壓力反應調節系統的能力,使其成為改善心理健康的潛在治療替代方案,且不會帶來與合成藥物相關的不良影響。然而,進一步的研究對於闡明精油的具體作用機制至關重要,這反過來可以促進精油基藥物的開發和接受。
參考文獻
Abhang PA, Gawali BW, Mehrotra SC (2016) Technical Aspects of Brain Rhythms and Speech Parameters. In: Abhang PA, Gawali BW, Mehrotra SC (eds.) Introduction to EEG- and Speech-Based Emotion Recognition. Academic Press, pp 51-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804490-2.00003-8.
Ali N & Nater UM (2020) Salivary Alpha-Amylase as a Biomarker of Stress in Behavioral Medicine. International J. of Behavioral Medicine, 27(3), 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-019-09843-x
Allen MJ, Sabir S & Sharma S (2023). GABA Receptor. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, US, StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/
Aoshima H & Hamamoto K (1999) Potentiation of GABAA receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes by perfume and phytoncid. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 63(4), 743–748.
Alshaya DS (2022) Genetic and epigenetic factors associated with depression: An updated overview. Saudi J. of Biological Sciences. 29(8), 103311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2022.103311
Babić Leko M, Hof PR & Šimić G (2021). Alterations and interactions of subcortical modulatory systems in Alzheimer's disease. Progress in brain research, 261, 379–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.07.016
Belujon P & Grace AA (2017). Dopamine System Dysregulation in Major Depressive Disorders. International J. of Neuropsychopharmacology, 20(12), 1036–1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyx056
Berger M, Gray JA, & Roth BL (2009) The expanded biology of serotonin. Annual review of medicine, 60, 355–366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.med.60.042307.110802
Bilkei-Gorzó A & Gyertyán I (1996) Some doubts about the basic concept of hole-board test. Neurobiology (Budapest, Hungary), 4(4), 405–415.
Chen YJ, Cheng F, Shih Y, Chang TM, Wang MF, & Lan S-S (2008) Inhalation of neroli essential oil and its anxiolytic effects. J. of Complementary and Integrative Medicine. 5(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2202/1553-3840.1143
Chen YF, Wang VW, Huang WS, Lee MM, Wood WG, Leung YM & Tsai HY (2016). Trans-Cinnamaldehyde, An Essential Oil in Cinnamon Powder, Ameliorates Cerebral Ischemia-Induced Brain Injury via Inhibition of Neuroinflammation Through Attenuation of iNOS, COX-2 Expression and NF-kB Signaling Pathway. Neuromolecular medicine. 18(3), 322–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12017-016-8395-9
Choi SY, Kang P, Lee HS & Seol GH (2014). Effects of Inhalation of Essential Oil of Citrus aurantium L. var. amara on Menopausal Symptoms, Stress, and Estrogen in Postmenopausal Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. *Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2014, 796518. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/796518
Chung S, Son GH & Kim K (2011). Circadian rhythm of adrenal glucocorticoid: its regulation and clinical implications. Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1812(5), 581–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.02.003
Costa C, A Kohn DO, de Lima VM, Gargan AC, Flório J & Costa M (2011). The GABAergic system contributes to the anxiolytic-like effect of essential oil from Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass). J. of Ethnopharmacology, 137(1), 828–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.003
Dean J & Keshavan M (2017) The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.01.025
Delgado PL (2000) Depression: the case for a monoamine deficiency. J. of Clinical Psychiatry, 61 Suppl 6, 7–11.
Delva NC & Stanwood GD (2021) Dysregulation of brain dopamine systems in major depressive disorder. Experimental biology and medicine (Maywood, NJ), 246(9), 1084–1093. https://doi.org/10.1177/1535370221991830
Felger JC & Lotrich FE (2013) Inflammatory cytokines in depression: neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Neuroscience. 246, 199–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.060
Gangadhar NP & Rao NP (2015) Action of Antipsychotics. In: Toga AW (eds.) Brain Mapping. Academic Press, pp. 937-941. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397025-1.00115-9
Hongratanaworakit T (2009) Relaxing effect of rose oil on humans. Natural product communications. 4(2), 291–296.
Hongratanaworakit T & Buchbauer G (2004) Evaluation of the harmonizing effect of ylang-ylang oil on humans after inhalation. Planta Medica. 70(7), 632–636. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-827186
Hongratanaworakit T & Buchbauer G (2006) Relaxing effect of ylang ylang oil on humans after transdermal absorption. *Phytotherapy Research: PTR. 20(9), 758–763. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1950
Hotta M, Nakata R, Katsukawa M, Hori K, Takahashi S & Inoue H (2010) Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expression. Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1801(11), 1214–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.07.004
Jafarzadeh M, Arman S & Pour FF (2013) Effect of aromatherapy with orange essential oil on salivary cortisol and pulse rate in children during dental treatment: A randomized controlled clinical trial. *Advanced biomedical research. 2, 10. https://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.107968
Jung DJ, Cha JY, Kim SE, Ko IG & Jee YS (2013) Effects of Ylang-Ylang aroma on blood pressure and heart rate in healthy men. *J. of Exercise Rehabilitation. 9(2), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.130007
Katsukawa M, Nakata R, Takizawa Y, Hori K, Takahashi S & Inoue H (2010). Citral, a component of lemongrass oil, activates PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expression. *Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1801(11), 1214–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.07.004
Köhler S, Cierpinsky K, Kronenberg G & Adli M (2016) The serotonergic system in the neurobiology of depression: Relevance for novel antidepressants. J. of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 30(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881115609072
Lizarraga-Valderrama LR (2021) Effects of essential oils on central nervous system: Focus on mental health. *Phytotherapy Research. 35(2), 657–679. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6824
Magosso E, De Crescenzo F, Ricci G, Piastra S & Oliva G (1998). EEG Alpha Power Is Modulated by Attentional Changes during Execution of Cognitive Tasks after Virtual Reality Immersion. *Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2019, 7051079. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7051079
Möhler H (2012) The GABA system in anxiety and depression and its therapeutic potential. *Neuropharmacology, 62(1), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.08.040
Morrone L A, Rombolà L, Pelle C, Corasaniti MT, Zappettini S, Paudice P, Bonanno G & Bagetta G (2007) The essential oil of bergamot enhances the levels of amino acid neurotransmitters in the hippocampus of rat: implication of monoterpene hydrocarbons. Phytomedicine: International J. of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology, 14(8), 631–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2007.06.011
Moss M, Cook J, Wesnes K & Duckett P (2003) Aromas of rosemary and lavender essential oils differentially affect cognition and mood in healthy adults. *International J. of Neuroscience, 113(1), 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450390161903
Okano S, Honda Y, Kodama T & Kimura M (2019) The Effects of Frankincense Essential Oil on Stress in Rats. *J. of Oleo Science. 68(10), 1003–1009. https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.ess19114
Pujiarti R, Ohtani Y, Widowiati TB, Kasmuadj TB, Masnudo W, Herath NK & Wang CN (2012) Effect of Melaleuca leucadendron, Canangaodorata and Pogostemoncabin oil odors on human physiological responses. *Wood Research Journal. 3(2), 100–105.
Rashidi Fakari F, Tabatabaeichehr M, Kamali H & Naseri M (2015). Effect of Inhalation of Aroma of Geranium Essence on Anxiety and Physiological Parameters during First Stage of Labor in Nulliparous Women: a Randomized Clinical Trial. *J. of Caring Sciences, 4(2), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.15171/jcs.2015.014
Raison CL, Capuron L & Miller AH (2006). Cytokines sing the blues: Inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression. Trends in Immunology. 27(1), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2005.11.006
Règue-Guyon M, Lanfumey L & Mongeau R (2018). Neuroepigenetics of Neurotrophin Signaling: Neurobiology of Anxiety and Affective Disorders. Progress in molecular biology and translational science. 158, 159–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2018.03.002
Rombolà L, Corasaniti MT, Rotiroti D, Tassorelli C, Sakurada S, Bagetta G & Morrone LA (2009). Effects of systemic administration of the essential oil of bergamot (BEO) on gross behaviour and EEG power spectra recorded from the rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Functional Neurology, 24(2), 107–112.
Rombolà L, Tridico L, Scuteri D, Sakurada T, Sakurada S, Mizoguchi, Avato P, Corasaniti MT, Bagetta G & Morrone LA (2017) Bergamot Essential Oil Attenuates Anxiety-Like Behaviour in Rats. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 22(4), 614. https://doi.org/10.3390/ molecules22040614
Saiyudthong S & Marsden CA (2011). Acute effects of bergamot oil on anxiety-related behaviour and corticosterone level in rats. *Phytotherapy Research: PTR, 25(6), 858–862. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3325
Sayorwan W, Ruangrungsi N, Piriyapunyoporn T, Hongratanaworakit T, Kotchabhakdi N & Siripornpanich V (2013) Effects of inhaled rosemary oil on subjective feelings and activities of the nervous system. *Scientia pharmaceutica, 81(2), 531–542. https://doi.org/10.3797/scipharm.1209-05
Seol GH, Lee YH, Kang P, You JH, Park M & Min SS (2013) Randomized controlled trial for Salvia sclarea or Lavandula angustifolia: differential effects on blood pressure in female patients with urinary incontinence undergoing urodynamic examination. *J. of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, NY), 19(7), 664–670. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2012.0148
Seol GH, Shim HS, Kim PJ, Moon HK, Lee KH, Shim I, Suh SH & Min SS (2010) Antidepressant-like effect of Salvia sclarea is explained by modulation of dopamine activities in rats. *J of Ethnopharmacology, 130(1), 187–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.035
Slavich GM & Irwin MR (2014) From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: a social signal transduction theory of depression. *Psychological bulletin. 140(3), 774–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035302
Sohrabi R, Pazgoohan N, Seresht HR & Amin B (2017) Repeated systemic administration of the cinnamon essential oil possesses anti-anxiety and anti-depressant activities in mice. *Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 20(6), 708–714. https://doi.org/10.22038/ IJBMS.2017.8841
Steptoe A, Hamer M & Chida Y (2007) The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: a review and meta-analysis. *Brain, behavior, and immunity. 21(7), 901–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.011
Tafet GE, Idoyaga-Vargas VP, Abulafia DP, Calandria JM, Roffman SS, Chiovetta A & Shinitzky M (2001) Correlation between cortisol level and serotonin uptake in patients with chronic stress and depression. *Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience. 1(4), 388–393. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.1.4.388
Travis A (2003) Mood Disorders, Biology. In: Aminoff MJ & Daroff RB (eds.) Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences. Academic Press, pp. 202-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-226870-9/01184-9
Umezu T, Sano T, Hayashi J, Yoshikawa Y & Shibata Y (2017) Identification of isobutyl angelate, isoamyl angelate and 2-methylbutyl isobutyrate as active constituents in Roman chamomile essential oil that promotes mouse ambulation. *Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 32(6), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3397
Villareal MO, Ikeya A, Sasaki K, Arfa AB, Neffati M & Isoda H (2017) Anti-stress and neuronal cell differentiation induction effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil. *BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 17(1), 549. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12906-017-2060-1
Watanabe E, Kuchta K, Kimura M, Rauwald HW, Kame T & Imanish J (2015) Effects of bergamot (Citrus bergamia (Risso) Wright & Arn.) essential oil aromatherapy on mood states, parasympathetic nervous system activity, and salivary cortisol levels in 41 healthy females. *Forschende Komplementarmedizin (2006), 22(1), 43–49. https://doi. org/10.1159/000380989
Yamatsu A, Nakamura U, Saddam HM, Horie N, Kaneko T & Kim M (2020) Intake of 200 mg/day of γ-aminobutyric acid(gaba)improves a wide range of cognitive functions. *Japanese Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 48(3): 461-474.
Zhang N, Zhang L, Feng L & Yao L (2016) The anxiolytic effect of essential oil of Cananga odorata exposure on mice and determination of its major active constituents and target mechanism. *Phytomedicine 23(14), 1727–1734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2016.10.017
Zhang N, Zhang L, Feng L & Yao L (2018) Cananga odorata essential oil reverses the anxiety induced by 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine through regulating the MAPK pathway and serotonin system in mice. *J. of Ethnopharmacology. 219, 23–30. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.03.013